Functional gene expression is a basic life process that connects the coding information of a gene to protein products. The level of gene expression is considered as a quantitative trait between genotype and phenotype and plays an important role in response to climatic and environmental changes. First, we systematically summarize regulatory elements of gene expression in plant species and empirical evidence, including the effects of transcription factors and small RNAs on gene expression regulation. Second, this review discusses the eQTL mapping for regulatory elements of gene expression through gene expression-based genome-wide association study (GWAS) and the limitations of this method. This review analyzes the intraspecific variation in gene expression in theory under the processes of mutation, drift and selection and the testing methods. This review also analyzes the interspecific evolution of gene expression under the mutation and drift processes or under the phylogeny-based drift-selection processes and the testing methods. Finally, this review discusses the regulation of gene expression by the plant mating system. Selfing reduces the effective population size, mutation rate, recombination rate and competition from exogenous pollen, and changes the efficacy of natural selection in the gametophytic and sporophytic phases. Selfing regulates intraspecific gene expression variation and interspecific gene expression evolution. This review comprehensively comments on theoretical and practical research progress and existing questions, which aids in our deep understanding of plant gene expression regulation and evolution mechanisms.

Salicylic acid (SA) is a natural phenolic compound in plants that plays a crucial regulatory role in plant immune responses. Plants primarily synthesize SA through two pathways: the isochorismate synthase (ICS) pathway and the phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) pathway. The synthesized SA is perceived by receptors such as nonexpressor of pathogenesis-related genes 1 (NPR1), which subsequently activate immune responses. In Brassicaceae species like Arabidopsis thaliana, SA is mainly synthesized via the ICS pathway, whereas monocots and non-Brassicaceae dicots predominantly rely on the PAL pathway. For a long time, understanding of SA biosynthesis via the PAL pathway has been incomplete, hindering research on SA-mediated immunity in crops and significantly limiting progress in crop disease-resistant breeding. Recently, three research groups from China independently elucidated the PAL-mediated SA biosynthesis pathway in crops. Building on these breakthroughs, this review summarizes recent advances in the study of SA-mediated plant immune responses. We primarily focus on the biosynthetic pathways of SA within plants, the mechanisms by which SA is perceived and activates immune responses, and discuss current challenges and future directions in SA-mediated immunity research. We hope this review provides new insights and perspectives for both theoretical studies and practical applications in crop disease-resistant breeding.

SWEETs are a recently discovered family of bidirectional sugar transporters that are widely present in all organisms. Their high substrate specificity for hexoses (such as glucose, fructose and galactose) and sucrose in different clades underlines their significance in regulating sugar signaling during various developmental and physiological processes in plants. This review primarily focuses on how SWEETs precisely respond to various biotic and abiotic stresses. We summarized systematically the regulatory mechanisms of SWEETs in response to environmental stresses at both the transcriptional level and the post-translational level and in multiple signal transduction pathways. This review aims to provide a novel perspective and deeper understanding of the complex biological functions and regulating mechanisms of SWEET transporters, and provides valuable information for future research on plant stress resistance and molecular breeding crops with high yield and disease resistance.

INTRODUCTION Chrysanthemum × morifolium is one of the ten most famous traditional flowers in China, and it has a rich variety of cultivars with diverse floral colour and shapes. However, varieties with blue floral colour have not been found in the natural chrysanthemum, therefore, breeding blue chrysanthemums has always been a goal pursued by researchers.

RATIONALE The total flavonoid extract of C. × morifolium ‘Wandai Fengguang’ could turn blue when adding appropriate concentration of Fe³⁺, and its living petal cells could also turn blue with the participation of Fe³⁺, which proved the feasibility of breeding blue chrysanthemums with Fe³⁺. Meanwhile, C. × morifolium ‘Wandai Fengguang’ can bloom both in summer and autumn, with early flowering and long flowering period, which is also an important material for the study of flowering period. Therefore, in order to cultivate blue chrysanthemums and achieve the targeted improvement of flowering period, it is particularly important to establish an efficient and stable regeneration and genetic transformation system for the C. × morifolium ‘Wandai Fengguang’. However, chrysanthemum has a long history of cultivation and complex genetic background, so the regeneration and genetic transformation system is not universal among different varieties.

RESULTS In this study, C. × morifolium ‘Wandai Fengguang’ was used as the experimental material to study the effects of different explant types with different combinations of plant growth regulators on its regeneration, and to investigate the effects of relevant factors on the efficiency of genetic transformation with the Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation method. The experimental results showed that the most suitable explants for the regeneration of C. × morifolium ‘Wandai Fengguang’ was the transverse thin cell layers (tTCLs), and the optimal culture medium was MS+1.5 mg∙L^-1 6-BA+0.6 mg∙L^-1 NAA. The highest differentiation rate was 70.06% and an adventitious bud coefficient was 3.37. The kanamycin selection pressures for the differentiation of the tTCLs and the adventitious bud rooting were 7.5 mg∙L^-1 and 5.0 mg∙L^-1, respectively. The optimal procedure for genetic transformation was pre-culture for 1 day, OD₆₀₀=0.8, treatment for 5 minutes, and co-culture in the dark for 3 days. Fifteen resistant plantlets were screened on kanamycin medium, and two positive plantlets were confirmed by PCR amplification, with a transformation efficiency of 13.33%.

CONCLUSION This study laid the foundation for the gene function analysis and targeted improvement molecular breeding of chrysanthemum by using this kind of unique variety resource, and provided reference for the establishment of regeneration and transformation system for other chrysanthemum varieties.

MicroTom tomato (Solanum lycopersicum cv. ‘MicroTom’) is widely used for functional characterization due to its short life cycle and clear genetic background. However, the traditional genetic transformation system of MicroTom based on tissue culture is constrained by low efficiency, long transformation period and complex operation. Based on the somatic cell reprogramming mechanism triggered by wound signaling, this study established an efficient and rapid in planta genetic transformation system for MicroTom tomato. Wound hypocotyl were created by removing apical cotyledons and true leaves from two-week-old seedlings, followed by direct inoculation with Agrobacterium tumefaciens carrying binary vector pCY-H05251-VcDAD2-EGFP (enhanced green fluorescent protein) to induce shoot regeneration. Results showed that a 28.6% PCR-based positive efficiency of regenerated shoots in the T0 generation, with seeds derived within 4–5 months post inoculation. Antibiotic and fluorescence screening revealed approximate 73.5% lines in the T1-generation expressed the fused EGFP protein. Compared to conventional tissue culture-dependent transformation systems, this protocol enhanced transformation efficiency, shortened transformation period, and simplified sterile operational procedures. The in planta genetic transformation system provides a robust platform for functional genomics studies, and significantly lowers technical barriers in tomato genetic breeding.

INTRODUCTION: To establish an efficient Agrobacterium-mediated genetic transformation system for peanuts and lay a foundation for the study of peanut gene functions and variety breeding.

RATIONALE: In this study, 11 peanut varieties were selected, and the cotyledonary leaflets from the variety with the highest bud cluster induction rate were screened out as experimental materials. By screening and optimizing influencing factors such as Agrobacterium strains, the optical density (OD) value of the bacterial suspension, the concentration of acetosyringone (AS), the concentration of surfactants, the infection method and duration, and the co-culture time, transgenic plants of peanut cotyledonary leaflets were obtained.

RESULTS: The results showed that using the embryo leaflet of Huayu 9133 as the receptor, the recombinant Agrobacterium containing eGFP (green fluorescent protein) and GUS (β-glucosidase) protein was used to infect and transform. It was found that when the infection solution was MS liquid+LBA4404 strain+100 μmol∙L^-1 AS+150 mg∙L^-1 surfactant Silwet-77 + bacterial solution OD600 was 0.7, the infection method was vacuuming for 15 min + soaking for 20 min + co-culture for 4 d, the peanut conversion rate was the highest. The positive rates of CaMV 35S:eGFP and AhUBQ4:GUS were 52.67% and 57.67%, respectively.The transgenic plants were induced by tissue culture method. The transgenic plants containing eGFP protein were identified as transgenic positive plants by eGFP green fluorescence and PCR detection, and the transgenic plants containing GUS protein were identified as transgenic positive plants by GUS staining and PCR detection.

CONCLUSION: This experiment successfully established and optimized the peanut genetic transformation system, which provided a reference for the study of peanut gene function, the cultivation of resistant varieties, quality improvement and biotechnology research.

CaMV 35S:eGFP侵染材料荧光示意图(a: 再生芽丛明场, b: 再生芽丛荧光, c: 再生苗明场, d: 再生苗荧光)

In recent years, significant progresses have been made in plant stress biology, particularly in elucidating the mechanisms underlying responses to extreme temperatures and salinity-alkalinity stresses. These advancements have not only broadened our understanding of plant resilience but also provided a wealth of potential targets for molecular breeding, paving new avenues for developing climate-resilient crop varieties that maintain high yield potential under both optimal and adverse conditions. This review concisely summarizes current knowledge on signal perception and transduction mechanisms during plant adaptation to extreme temperature and saline-alkali stresses, discusses the balance regulation between growth/development and stress tolerance, particularly highlights recent breakthroughs by Chinese scientists in discovering key genes and deciphering mechanisms that synergistically improve crop stress resistance and yield. We also provide future prospects for breeding strategies.

FLOWERING LOCUS T (FT) is a signaling protein synthesized in leaves and transported to the shoot apical meristem, where it functions as florigen, a key inducer of flowering and developmental transitions. Substantial progress has been made in elucidating the mechanisms underlying FT synthesis, transport, and the assembly and regulation of the florigen activation complex (FAC), providing a solid foundation for understanding plant developmental regulatory networks. Recently, a study integrated multiple regulatory layers, including protein-DNA interactions, liquid-liquid phase separation, and spatiotemporal expression patterns, thereby extending the traditional static FAC model into a dynamic and multilayered assembly framework. This work offers new molecular insights into how plants integrate environmental cues to regulate reproductive development. In this review, we summarize recent advances in FT and FAC research, highlight key outstanding questions, and discuss future directions, aiming to provide fresh perspectives for elucidating plant developmental regulation and for potential applications in crop improvement.

Iron-sulfur [Fe-S] clusters, which act as cofactors for iron-sulfur proteins, are ubiquitously implicated in a diverse array of biological processes, such as photosynthesis, respiration, electron transport, and the biosynthesis of essential vitamins and cofactors. Their intracellular biogenesis is modulated by a suite of proteins that catalyze and regulate the process, with compartmentalization occurring within discrete subcellular compartments. Mitochondria, as the central organelles for cellular energy metabolism, harbor numerous key metabolic enzymes that are iron-sulfur proteins, necessitating the provision of iron-sulfur clusters by the mitochondrial assembly machinery, the iron-sulfur cluster (ISC). Advancements in research, particularly from bacteria and yeast systems, have facilitated significant strides in the identification and functional characterization of pivotal catalytic and regulatory proteins within the plant mitochondrial ISC system. Additionally, considerable progress has been made in the research of the role in iron-sulfur clusters in the plant growth and development. The elucidation of plant-specific components within the iron-sulfur cluster synthesis machinery and the mechanisms by which this system responds to environmental stress are areas of growing interest. This manuscript provides a comprehensive review of the current state of research on the mechanism of iron-sulfur cluster synthesis in plants, with a particular focus on the mitochondrial ISC assembly system. It also provides a succinct synopsis of the role of key genes within the ISC system in plant growth and development, as well as their involvement in the response to abiotic stressors.

Rice (Oryza sativa) is one of the most vital food crops globally, and its yield plays a crucial role in ensuring food security. However, various diseases affecting rice pose significant threats to this security. Among these, rice blast, bacterial blight, and sheath blight are the three predominant diseases impacting global rice production. Consequently, there is an urgent need to breed and cultivate rice varieties with broad-spectrum disease resistance. In recent years, substantial advancements have been made in understanding the regulatory mechanisms underlying disease resistance in rice. This paper reviews these mechanisms from multiple perspectives, including the plant’s intrinsic immune responses and the functional dynamics of resistance genes. Furthermore, it highlights pressing issues that require immediate attention to facilitate broad-spectrum disease-resistant breeding efforts for rice.

In recent years, we have witnessed transformative breakthroughs in plant disease resistance research, particularly in deciphering the intricate interplay between hosts and pathogens. Cutting-edge discoveries span pathogen recognition mechanisms, immune signaling cascades, and multi-layered interactions integrating plants, pathogens, vectors, and environmental variables. Notably, pioneering studies from domestic research institutions have driven progress across pathogen-sensing systems, secondary metabolite-mediated defense, immune module engineering in crops, and artificial intelligence (AI)-powered solutions for pathogen-resistant peptide design. The rapid development of CRISPR/ Cas9-based gene editing and AI technologies has further empowered researchers to engineer disease-resistant crop varieties with unprecedented precision. Such progress holds profound implications for ensuring national food security and advancing strategic priorities in disease-resistant crop breeding, marking a transformative era in agricultural biotechnology and sustainable agriculture.

INTRODUCTION Mahonia (Berberidaceae), a basal eudicot lineage, ranks as the second largest genus in the family, comprising approximately 100 species distributed across subtropical to temperate regions of East Asia and North America. The genus exhibits a classic East Asia-Western North America (EA/WNA) disjunction. Notably, Mahonia preserves abundant leaf fossil records in Cenozoic strata of the Northern Hemisphere, reflecting its prolonged evolutionary history. Characterized by distinctive foliar architecture that differs markedly from other angiosperm groups, this genus holds significant potential as a invaluable biological proxy or model plant for investigating the formation of intercontinental disjunct distribution patterns. Its unique morphological traits and biogeographic history provide critical opportunities to trace genus-level morphological evolution and spatio-temporal dynamics against the backdrop of global tectonic movements and climatic shifts.

RATIONALE Through comprehensive morphological surveys of extant Mahonia species, we established a novel leaf architecture classification framework designed for application to fossil leaf typology. This system aims to elucidate the genus’ foliar evolutionary trajectory since the Cenozoic and unravel the historical processes underlying its intercontinental disjunct distribution.

RESULTS Traditionally taxonomist divides Mahonia into two groups based on venation patterns: the palmately veined Group Orientales and the pinnately veined Group Occidentales. Building upon previous studies, we analyzed leaf architecture across 46 extant species and developed a refined subclade classification system using four diagnostic traits: leaflet margin type, serration density (teeth per edge), serration height, and leaflet length-to-width ratio. The Group Oriental was subdivided into seven foliar types (Microphylla, Japonica, Cardiophylla, Bodinieri, Polyodonta, Fortunei, and Nervosa), while the Occidental clade yielded six types (Chochoco, Dictyota, Volcania, Pumila, Lanceolata, and Aquifolium), accompanied by a diagnostic key. Distributional analyses revealed that within Group Orientales, geographic range expands with increasing serration height, whereas in Group Occidentales, distribution range correlates positively with serration density. The framework’s utility was further validated through taxonomic reclassification of two disputed fossil specimens, demonstrating its applicability to paleobotanical studies.

CONCLUSION Our refined foliar classification system for Mahonia represents a significant advancement in precision and granularity over previous systems. This framework holds substantial promise for standardizing Cenozoic leaf fossil typology across the Northern Hemisphere, while providing critical insights into the genus’ foliar evolution and the historical assembly of its intercontinental disjunct distribution pattern.

Retrieval and line drawings of leaf architecture of Mahonia

Rice bacterial leaf streak (BLS), caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola (Xoc), is a significant quarantine disease. The pathogen exhibits both high genetic diversity and strong transmission capabilities. Driven by agricultural intensification and global warming, BLS has been progressively expanding across major indica rice-producing regions in southern China. This review systematically summarizes recent advances in Xoc-rice interaction mechanisms: (1) Pathogen perspective: elucidating pathogenic mechanisms of virulence factors (including T2SS, T3SS, and extracellular polysaccharides (EPS)) and pathovar differentiation patterns; (2) Host perspective: clarifying advances in PTI/ETI-mediated immunity signaling pathways, resistance (R) gene cloning, and susceptibility (S) gene editing; and (3) Future directions: proposing multi-omics approaches to decode Xoc pathogenicity networks, leveraging pan-genomics for large-scale mining of durable and broad-spectrum R genes, and constructing synergistic systems integrating S gene editing with immune activation to establish systematic solutions for sustainable BLS management.

Unraveling the mechanisms of plant disease resistance and immunity is crucial for breeding disease-resistant crops and safeguarding national food security. Photoreceptors, which are central for perceiving environmental signals, not only fine-tune plant growth and development, but also serve as key signaling hubs in plant-pathogen interactions. Studies have demonstrated that photoreceptor interact directly or indirectly with the COP1/SPA complex, HY5, PIFs, and other light-signaling components. By regulating the spatiotemporal expression of resistance-related defense genes and controlling the synthesis and response networks of defense-related hormones, photoreceptors precisely integrate light signals with pattern-triggered immunity (PTI) and effector-triggered immunity (ETI), thereby balancing plant growth and immunity. In recent years, research into the interaction between light signaling and plant immune systems has become a hot topic in the field of plant biology. Elucidating these underlying mechanisms offers new directions for breeding disease-resistant crops. This paper focuses on the molecular mechanisms of plant disease resistance regulated by photoreceptors, particularly the immune activation mechanisms mediated by photoreceptors and their spatiotemporal integration with immune-related hormone signals. Additionally, it delves into the potential application of optogenetic technology in studying this interaction. The aim is to provide new theoretical and technical avenues for future molecular breeding of disease-resistant crops, which will be based on photoreceptor modification and signal transduction pathways.

INTRUDUCTION: Xanthopappus subacaulis, endemic to the Qinghai-Xizang Plateau, is a perennial medicinal plant from the genus Xanthopappus of the family Asteraceae, with important economic, ecological and medicinal values. However, genomic information for this species remains limited, hindering further genetic studies and resource utilization. Determining an appropriate sequencing strategy for its whole genome is a key prerequisite for subsequent genomic studies.
RATIONALE: In order to determine the appropriate sequencing strategy for the whole genome of X. subacaulis, we analyzed and evaluated its genome size, heterozygosity, repeat and GC content using flow cytometry and genome survey analysis based on BGI sequencing.
RESULTS: Flow cytometry analyses using Opisthopappus longilobus and Solanum lycopersicum as reference genomes indicated that X. subacaulis was a diploid, with an estimated genome size of 1.94 G and 1.75 G respectively, and a DNA-C value of 0.99 pg. We generated approximately 100.3 G of clean short read sequencing data, with a GC content of 38.5%. K-mer analysis indicated that the genome size of X. subacaulis was 2 198.50 Mb, with a heterozygosity rate of 0.69%, and repeat content of 80.15%. The analysis of the long terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTR-RTs) indicated that the LTR/Copia was the most abundant LTR family, accounting for 30.72% of the whole genome, while the Gypsy family and the unknown LTRs accounted for 33.66% and 16.54%, respectively. Moreover, their peak insertion time began approximately three million years ago (Mya), with a marked amplification occurring within the last 1 Mya. These results suggested that the large-scale insertion of LTR elements was (most) likely one of the important factors leading to the genomic complexity of X. subacaulis.
CONCLUSION: This study clarifies the key genomic characteristics of X. subacaulis, which provides valuable reference data resources for subsequent genetic map construction and functional gene mining of X. subacaulis, and also lays a foundation for determining its whole-genome sequencing strategy.

Growth morphology and genomic characteristics of Xanthopappus subacaulis. (A) Growth morphology of X. subacaulis (bar=5 cm); (B) Depth and frequency distribution of K-mer and insertion time analysis of long terminal repeat retrotransposons (LTR-RTs)

3D reconstruction technology involves using computer graphics and image processing technologies to extract the geometric and topological information of the target object from the two-dimensional image data. This information is then used to create a three-dimensional mathematical model that can be processed by a computer, enabling the virtual reconstruction of the target object. In plant science research, the construction of three-dimensional models has become an effective way to study plant growth and development, morphological structure and functional mechanism. These models provide robust support for multi-scale imaging, measurement and analysis, demonstrating significant application potential in the field of agriculture and forestry. In recent years, advancements in plant 3D reconstruction technology have led to diverse applications in botanical research, covering plant morphological structure modeling, growth and development dynamic monitoring, and plant breeding. In this paper, we summarize the development process of 3D reconstruction technology and its application in plant studies across different scales (from organs and tissues to cells). We focus on the basic principles and applications of these technologies, aiming to provide theoretical and technical support for multimodal cross-scale imaging and plant phenotypic and functional research. Additionally, this work offers a novel approach to understand the principles of plant growth and development and the mechanisms underlying their responses to environmental changes.

Systemic acquired resistance (SAR) is a crucial defense mechanism in plants, which can significantly enhance the plant’s resistance to pathogenic microorganisms. SAR has systemic, persistent, and broad-spectrum characteristics, whose transcriptional regulation plays a central role in the process. Here, the research progress on transcriptional regulation of SAR from the synthesis of salicylic acid (SA), Pip/NHP, transcriptional regulation of NPR1, NPR3/NPR4 receptors and Pip/NHP mobile signals, as well as TGA, WRKY transcription factor family regulation was reviewed, providing a reference for a deeper understanding of plant immune regulatory networks, and systematic exploration of the mechanisms by which plants balanced growth and defense in complex environments.

INTRODUCTION Aronia melanocarpa also known as black chokeberry, belongs to the genus Aronia (Rosaceae). In addition to A. melanocarpa, Aronia includes A. arbutifolia or red chokeberry and A. prunifolia or purple chokeberry, both distributed naturally in North American, and an additional cultivated taxon, A. mitschurinii or Mitschurin’s chokeberry, originating from Europe. However, the species boundaries and relationships among the species of Aronia are not clear. Moreover, the taxonomic history of Aroniais complex, as species of this genus have formerly been placed in many different genera, such as Mespilus, Pyrus, Adenorachis, Sorbus, and Photinia. In the present study, we first sequenced and characterized the complete chloroplast (cp) genome of A. melanocarpa and compared its sequence with those of the cp genomes from 13 species of the family Rosaceae. The aims of this study were: (1) to increase our understanding of the structural patterns of complete cp genome of A. melanocarpa; (2) to investigate the phylogenetic relationships of A. melanocarpa with other Rosaceae species based on their cp genomes.

RATIONALE The chloroplast is a unique and essential organelle in green plants with vital roles in photosynthesis and carbon fixation. Comparative analyses of cp genomes between different plant species reveal intra- and inter-species rearrangements that have occurred during evolution, such as inverted repeat (IR) contraction and expansion. Based on these characteristics, the cp genome has been wildly used for species identification, phylogenetic analysis, and exploring the genetic basis of environmental adaptation.

RESULTS The complete A. melanocarpa cp genome was sequenced, analyzed, and compared with that from 13 other species in the Rosaceae. The cp genome is 159 772 bp and has a total guanine-cytosine (GC) content of 36.6%. It exhibits a typical quadripartite structure with four separate regions, including a large single copy (LSC) region of 87 810 bp and a small single copy (SSC) region of 19 200 bp separated by two inverted repeats (IRa and IRb) regions of 26 381 bp each. A total of 132 genes were annotated, including 87 protein-coding genes, 37 tRNAs, and eight rRNAs, with 22 duplicates in the IR regions. In total, 76 simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and 50 long repeats were detected. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that A. melanocarpa is most closely related to A. arbutifolia and forms a sister clade to Cydonia oblonga with weak support.

CONCLUSION We analyzed the complete cp genome of A. melanocarpa by using Illumina high-throughput sequencing technology. The sequence of A. melanocarpa cp genome could be further used for the development of molecular markers. Highly variable regions were detected in intergenic regions, such as trnK-rps16, rps16-trnQ, trnG-atpA, petN-psbM, trnT-psbD, psbZ-trnG, trnT-trnL, ndhC-trnV and accD-psaI, which might be useful for broad applications in genetic research studies as well as phylogenetic studies. Phylogenetic construction results strongly supported that A. melanocarpa was closest related to A. arbutifolia, followed by C. oblonga with weak support. This newly available genomic data for A. melanocarpa will provide a basis for future research on the population genetics and phylogenomics and will benefit the breeding studies and utilization of the genus Aronia.

Map of the chloroplast genome of Aronia melanocarpa and phylogenetic analyses among the 60 Rosaceae species using their complete chloroplast genomes. Aronia formed a clade with Dichotomanthes and Pourthiaea based on cpDNA tree. Moreover, A. melanocarpa is most closely related to A. arbutifolia and forms a sister clade to Cydonia oblonga with weak support.

INTRODUCTION: Anthracnose, primarily caused by Colletotrichum gloeosporioides is a main diseaseaffecting mangoes, leading to significant postharvest losses by deteriorating fruit quality and reducing shelf life. 

RATIONALE: Addressing postharvest anthracnose is a critical challenge in the mango industry. Biological control methods, such as utilizing antagonistic bacteria, offer sus-tainable alternatives to chemical treatments. This study investigates the efficacy of Ba-cillus velezensis in inhibiting C. gloeosporioides and its potential in preserving mango fruit quality. 

RESULTS: The application of B. velezensis culture filtrate (CF) effectively inhibited spore germination and mycelial growth of C. gloeosporioides. At CF concentrations of 2% and 4%, mycelial inhibition rates were 75.18% and 80.96%, respectively. In vivo experiments demonstrated that both bacterial suspension (CB) and CF treatments significantly re-duced lesion expansion on mangoes, with inhibition rates of 44.33% and 65.00%, respectively. Treated fruits exhibited a slower decrease in titratable acids and maintained higher levels of total phenols and flavonoids, indicating delayed ripening and extended shelf life. 

 CONCLUSION: Bacillus velezensis exhibits strong antagonistic activity against C. gloeosporioides, effectively controlling mango anthracnose and preserving fruit quality. Its application as a biocontrol agent holds promise for sustainable postharvest management in mango production.

INTRODUCTION: Verticillium wilt (VW), caused by Verticillium dahliae, severely reduces cotton yield and fiber quality. Previous transcriptomic analysis in V. dahliae-inoculated Arabidopsis thaliana identified the pathogen-induced DIR1-like gene AT3G53980.2. In cotton, we discovered a homologous gene, GhDIR1 (Gh_A09G180700.1), encoding a lipid transfer protein. This study investigates its role in cotton resistance to V. dahliae.

RATIONALE: We characterized GhDIR1’s molecular features, expression patterns under pathogen stress, and functional impact using bioinformatics, subcellular localization, qRT-PCR, and virus-induced gene silencing (VIGS) analyses. Transcriptomic analysis of wild-type and GhDIR1-silenced plants were conducted to unravel downstream regulatory networks, focusing on metabolic pathways linked to plant immunity.

RESULTS: The results showed that GhDIR1 contains a 351 bp ORF encoding 116 amino acids. Subcellular localization confirmed its presence on the cell membrane. qRT-PCR showed rapid induction of GhDIR1 by V. dahliae. Silencing GhDIR1 increased cotton susceptibility to the pathogen. Transcriptomic data revealed that differentially expressed genes in silenced plants were enriched in flavonoid biosynthesis, sesquiterpene/triterpene biosynthesis, and α-linolenic acid metabolism. Key genes (GhCHS, GhDFR, GhCAD, GhSEQ, GhLOX, and GhAOC) in these pathways were downregulated, suggesting impaired synthesis of protective metabolites.

CONCLUSION: It is speculated that GhDIR1 positively regulates cotton resistance to VW by modulating flavonoid and terpenoid biosynthesis and jasmonic acid-related signaling. Its silencing disrupts critical defense pathways, highlighting its role in coordinating immune responses. These findings propose GhDIR1 as a potential target for enhancing disease resistance in cotton.

The induced expression pattern of GhDIR1 and related genes after inoculation with Verticillium dahliae.

The plant innate immune system serves as the primary defense against pathogen invasion, with well-established frameworks for receptor recognition and signal transduction mechanisms. This review highlights recent key breakthroughs in plant immunity research from Chinese institutions: (1) The discovery of novel mechanisms driving virulence evolution through asymmetric chromosome distribution in fungi and chromosome fusion in oomycetes; (2) Elucidation of the kinase MtLICK1/2-mediated molecular switch that precisely regulates the symbiosis-immunity trade-off via phosphorylation of MtLYK3 in legumes; (3) Identification of a “sensor-executor” paradigm where tandem kinases and NLR immune receptors cooperatively activate immunity in cereal crops; (4) Innovative strategies including co-transfer of sensor-helper NLR pairs to overcome taxonomic restrictions; and (5) Develop technology of autoactive NLR chimeras activated by pathogen protease cleavage for broad-spectrum resistance. These advances collectively deepen our understanding of plant-pathogen-environment interactions across three dimensions—pathogen adaptive evolution, sophisticated host immune regulation, and receptor engineering applications. Crucially, fundamental mechanistic insights have been successfully translated into crop genetic improvement practices. The integrated findings provide a robust theoretical foundation and actionable technological framework for designing novel crop varieties with durable, broad-spectrum disea- se resistance to address mounting agricultural biosecurity threats.

INTRODUCTION Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) is one of the foremost vegetable crops globally. Photosynthesis intricately influences the fruit yield of cucumber, and leaf color determines the photosynthetic efficiency to a large extent. Therefore, Leaf color mutants serve as ideal materials for scrutinizing diverse physiological processes, including photomorphogenesis, chloroplast development, chlorophyll metabolism, and photosynthetic mechanisms. Currently, the molecular mechanisms underlying the yellowing lethal phenotype remain unclear.

RATIONALE In this study, a stable cucumber yellowing lethal mutant, ycl(yellow cotyledon lethal), was isolated from the near-isogenic line XYYH-2-1-1. The phenotype, leaf microstructure and chloroplast ultrastructure, as well as physiological and biochemical analyses, were conducted on the mutant ycl and the wild-type XYYH-3-1 to explore the physiological mechanisms underlying the yellowing lethal phenotype. Preliminary localisation of yellowing lethal mutation genes was performed by whole genome resequencing using BSA. The integration of transcriptome sequencing allowed us to analyze the expression of genes related to yellowing death and the main pathways. This approach laid a solid foundation for further investigation into the molecular mechanisms responsible for the lethal phenotype associated with yclyellowing.

RESULTS The ycl mutant exhibited yellow cotyledons, which ultimately withered and perished within approximately two weeks. Notably, its growth-inhibiting phenotype appeared to be light-independent. Compared to the wild type, ycl accumulated extremely low Chl a and Chl b contents, which was consistent with the blockade in the magnesium ion chelation process within the chlorophyll biosynthesis pathway. Microscopic and ultrastructural analyses revealed disordered ycl leaf structure and inhibited chloroplast development. Additionally, the ycl mutant displayed significantly increased antioxidant enzyme activities and malondialdehyde contents, suggesting elevated oxidative stress levels and robust antioxidant capacities. The substantial decrease in net photosynthetic rate and rise in intercellular CO₂ concentration in ycl were hypothesized to stem from reduced stomatal conductance, diminished chlorophyll content, and impaired chloroplast development in the mutant. Transcriptomic analyses suggested that key pathways including photosynthesis, flavonoid biosynthesis, chlorophyll metabolism, and reactive oxygen species metabolism were affected in ycl. The ycl mutant gene was preliminarily mapped to a region between 1.48 to 1.9 Mb on chromosome 3 through BSA-seq analysis, encompassing 41 candidate genes.

CONCLUSION The study investigated the physiological mechanisms underlying the yellowing lethal phenotype of the yclmutant, preliminarily mapped the mutant gene to chromosome 3, and identified differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and key pathways associated with the lethal phenotype. These findings provide valuable insights into the molecular mechanisms of chloroplast development in cucumber.

Phenotypic changes of WT and the ycl mutant at the cotyledon stage under natural light conditions, and preliminary mapping of the mutant gene.

The plant cell wall, which is composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin and lignin, is a dynamically changing network structure, that not only plays the role of a key line of defense in the process of plant resistance to external pressure and adaptation to environmental changes, but also plays the role of an information hub in the process of signal transmission. When the cell wall is damaged, cells sense cell wall changes and initiate early immune responses, such as hormonal changes, alterations in wall composition and modifications, and the production of disease-resistant secondary metabolites. Although the importance of the cell wall in plant immunity is widely recognized, the specific molecular mechanisms by which cell wall damage triggers immune responses remain poorly understood. The application of in situ unlabeled imaging techniques in plant cells is gradually increasing and has become an important tool for studying cell wall structure and function. This paper describes the interaction mechanism between the plant cell wall and the immune response to provide a scientific basis for a deeper understanding of plant life activities and improve crop disease resistance, and describes in situ non-labeled imaging of the cell wall to provide more technological options for advancing the study of the cell wall in the immune response.

Pathogen infection is a serious threat to plant growth and development, causing severe crop yield reduction. The plant immune system, which is mainly composed of PTI (pattern-triggered immunity) and ETI (effector-triggered immunity), plays an essential role in resistance against pathogen infection. A large amount of research focused on resolving the key immune receptors/co-receptors, the components and regulation mechanisms of the PTI and ETI signaling pathways, and the biosynthesis and signaling pathways of the plant immune hormones salicylic acid and jasmonic acid. The major events during plant immune responses include pathogen recognition, the outburst of reactive oxygen species, Ca²⁺ influx, MAPK cascade signaling, and the induced expression of downstream defense genes. Recent studies have revealed that the expression of plant immune-related genes is not only regulated at the transcriptional level. The stability, translation efficiency, and translation products of their mRNAs are affected by a variety of post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms, including alternative splicing, m⁶A modification, small RNAs, uORFs, and R-motifs. Here, we summarized the present understanding of the plant immune system and mainly introduced the latest studies of the post-transcriptional regulation of plant immunity. This review also covered some findings that showed how pathogen interferes with the host post-transcriptional regulatory machinery. Some post-transcriptional regulatory elements have been successfully applied in crops. This application provides new molecular tools for improving diseases resistance and contribution to food security, as well as useful components for molecular breeding.

Totipotency and pluripotency of plant cells serve as the theoretical basis for plant regeneration, underpinning various techniques such as plant tissue culture, genetic transformation, cutting, and grafting. In recent years, advances in understanding the molecular mechanisms of plant regeneration—particularly key transcription factors, hormonal signaling networks and epigenetic factors—have led to the development of a series of molecular tools capable of manipulating cell fate, offering new strategies to enhance regenerative capacity. This review summarizes the molecular and chemical tools that play central roles in four key regenerative processes: shoot regeneration, root regeneration, somatic embryogenesis, and grafting. It also discusses practical considerations such as delivery methods for these tools, selection of culture systems, and strategies for efficacy evaluation. Furthermore, the review explores future directions, including the rational combination of genetic and chemical tools to develop novel delivery systems and overcome epigenetic barriers, thereby providing theoretical and practical guidance for designing efficient regeneration protocols tailored to different species and regeneration objectives.

INTRODUCTION Due to differences in breeding objectives, northeast japonica rice (Oryza sativa subsp. geng or japonica) is more advantageous than Japanese japonica rice in terms of yield level, whereas Japanese japonica rice is significantly better than Chinese japonica rice in terms of eating quality. Clarifying the genetic basis of the differences in eating quality between Chinese and Japanese japonica rice is highly valuable for the cultivation of high-yield and high-quality japonica rice.

RATIONALEA total of 274 Chinese and Japanese japonica rice varieties were used as research materials to quantify the eating quality of the rice and to analyze the genetic basis of the taste differences between Chinese and Japanese japonica rice by combining genome-wide association analysis with the downscaling of many parameters.

RESULTSThe results revealed that the significant differences in the taste values of Chinese and Japanese japonica rice were reflected in three textural parameters: the adhesion force (ADF), first recoverable deformation cycle (FRDC), and elasticity index (EI). Moreover, the correlation analysis between the taste values and 30 textural characters showed that 24 characters were significantly correlated with the taste value of rice. The 30 metrics of textural characterization were downscaled to four principal components that explained 80% of the phenotypic variation in the population, and the genome-wide associations of their eigenvalues were mined to two primary effector loci affecting the textural characterization of Chinese-Japanese japonica rice, qFPC4.3 and qFPC9.2.

CONCLUSION In this study, we quantified the parameters of eating quality from a qualitative perspective, and thus analyzed the genetic basis of the differences in eating quality between Chinese and Japanese rice, which provided valuable genetic information and a theoretical basis for the genetic improvement of the eating quality of japonica rice in China.

PCA analysis and genome-wide association studies based on principal component eigenvalues of texture characteristics indicators. PCA analysis was performed using 2021 data.

INTRODUCTION: The TCP protein family is a plant-specific group of transcription factors known to regulate key biological processes, including growth, development, and stress responses. Despite their critical roles, the TCP gene family in Bergenia purpurascens remains uncharacterized. This study aims to systematically identify and analyze the BpTCP gene family in B. purpurascens using transcriptome-based bioinformatics approaches, providing insights into their potential functions in cold adaptation and secondary metabolism.

RATIONALE: B. purpurascens exhibits remarkable resilience to abiotic stresses, particularly cold, and contains abundant secondary metabolites. Given the documented roles of TCP genes in stress responses and metabolic regulation in other plants, we hypothesized that BpTCP genes may contribute to these traits. A comprehensive analysis of this gene family could reveal novel mechanisms underlying stress adaptation and metabolite synthesis, supporting future genetic improvement or biotechnological applications.

RESULTS: Through transcriptome-based bioinformatics analysis, we identified 16 BpTCP genes in B. purpurascens, which were phylogenetically classified into two major groups, with all members containing conserved TCP domains and closely related proteins sharing similar motif patterns. Tissue-specific expression profiling revealed distinct spatial expression patterns across different tissues, suggesting functional diversification among family members. Notably, partial genes, including BpTCP10, BpTCP1 and BpTCP12, exhibited significant expression changes under cold stress, implying their potential cold-responsive roles. Furthermore, expression levels of specific BpTCP genes correlated significantly with accumulation of various secondary metabolites, particularly flavonoids and phenolics, suggesting their regulatory involvement in metabolic pathways.

CONCLUSION: This study provides the first genome-wide characterization of the BpTCP gene family in B. purpurascens, demonstrating its potential roles in growth, cold stress response, and secondary metabolism. The differential expression of BpTCP genes under stress and their correlation with metabolite levels lay a foundation for future functional studies.

      

Expression pattern and metabolic correlation analysis of TCP gene family in Bergenia purpurascens.  A total of 16 BpTCP genes were identified in Bergenia purpurascens and classified into two major phylogenetic groups. All BpTCP genes contain conserved TCP domains, and proteins from the same evolutionary branch share similar motif compositions. Different BpTCP genes exhibit distinct tissue-specific expression patterns and display distinctive responses to cold stress. Furthermore, certain BpTCP genes demonstrate significant correlations with the accumulation of diverse metabolites.

INTRODUCTION: 14-3-3 proteins are a highly conserved protein family that specifically recognize phosphorylated target proteins and play crucial roles in plant abiotic stress responses. By interacting with AREB/ABF (ABA-responsive element binding protein/ABA-responsive element binding factor) transcription factors, 14-3-3 proteins participate in ABA signal transduction and regulate abiotic stress tolerance. TaGRF3-D is a 14-3-3 protein gene in wheat (Triticum aestivum), and our previous studies revealed that the expression of this gene was upregulated under ABA and abiotic stress.
RATIONALE: To explore the biological function of the TaGRF3-D gene, we cloned the gene, and investigated its subcellular localization and function under drought stress.
RESULTS: The results revealed that TaGRF3-D is highly conserved in monocotyledonous plants and is localizes in the nucleus and plasma membrane. Compared with the wild type, the Arabidopsis thaliana transgenic lines overexpressing TaGRF3-D presented significantly longer roots under PEG and ABA treatments and showed a markedly greater survival rate after drought stress. Yeast two-hybrid analysis revealed that TaGRF3-D interacted with wheat TaABF3-B, TaABF4-A, TaABF15-D, TaABF16-B, TaABF17-D, and TaABF18-B, but not with TaABF1-D, TaABF2-A or TaABF19-A.
CONCLUSION: These results suggest that TaABF3-D responds to ABA signaling by interacting with wheat TaABF transcription factors, thereby increasing the drought stress tolerance of transgenic plants.

Phenotypes of the TaGRF3-D transgenic lines and the wild type (WT) under drought stress (A) and interaction between the TaGRF3-D protein and the ABF protein (B). Bars=1 cm

INTRODUCTION A preliminary tissue culture system for Phyllanthus acidus was established.

RATIONALE In this study, the stem tips of P. acidus were used as explants, and the schemes of primary culture, secondary proliferation culture and rooting culture were screened.

RESULTS The results showed that the optimal medium for primary culture was MS+2.0 mg·L^-1 6-BA+0.2 mg·L^-1 NAA, and the induced germination rate of explants reached 81.11%. The optimal medium for subculture was MS+1.0 mg·L^-1 6-BA+0.2 mg·L^-1 IBA, and the proliferation coefficient was 1.86. The optimal medium for rooting was MS+1.5 mg·L^-1 IBA, and the rooting rate reached 83.00%. After 7 days of cultivation, the plantlets were transplanted with perlite, peat soil and humus=1:1:1 (v/v/v), and the survival rate was 90%.

CONCLUSION The most suitable medium for primary culture using the stem tip of P. acidus as explant was MS medium and the phytohormones were 2.0 mg·L^-1 6-BA and 0.2 mg·L^-1 NAA; the optimal phytohormones for subculture were 1.0 mg·L^-1 6-BA and 0.2 mg·L^-1 IBA; the optimal phytohormone for rooting culture was 1.5 mg·L^-1 IBA.

INTRODUCTION: Viola × wittrockiana, a member of the Violaceae family, is recognized as a commercially valuable ornamental species due to its diverse flower colors and potential medicinal applications. However, its vegetative propagation via tissue culture has been limited by challenges such as low regeneration efficiency, procedural complexity in existing protocols, and genotype-dependent regeneration capacity. Previous attempts to establish regeneration systems for this species have been reported, but issues including inconsistent callus differentiation, low adventitious bud formation rates, and high dependency on explant quality remain unresolved. Consequently, the development of a stable and efficient regeneration system is considered critical for enabling biotechnological advancements, including genetic transformation and large-scale propagation of elite cultivars. A systematic approach focusing on genotype screening, explant selection, and optimization of plant growth regulator combinations is required to address these limitations and facilitate the species’ genetic improvement.
RATIONALE: Regeneration capacity in plants is highly influenced by genotype. This study aimed to optimize the regeneration system for V. × wittrockiana by screening eight cultivars and selecting petioles as superior explants due to their higher callus differentiation potential. Key factors, including plant growth regulators (2,4-D, KT, 6-BA) and carbohydrate sources (sucrose, maltose, trehalose), were systematically evaluated. Repeated induction cycles were employed to enrich high-regeneration genotypes, enhancing overall efficiency and reproducibility.
RESULTS: Petioles were identified as superior explants, exhibiting a significantly higher callus induction rate (91.90%) compared to leaves (49.65%) across eight V. × wittrockiana cultivars, with the highest differentiation efficiency (15.83%) observed in the PXP cultivar. The optimal callus induction medium was determined to be 1/2MS (sugar-free) supplemented with 30 g∙L^-1 sucrose, 1.5 mg∙L^-1 2,4-D, and 1.5 mg∙L^-1 KT, achieving a differentiation rate of 18.52%. For adventitious bud induction, the highest regeneration efficiency (67.33±3.06)% was obtained through repeated induction cycles using 1/2MS (sugar-free) containing 30 g∙L^-1 trehalose, 0.05 mg∙L^-1 2,4-D, and 3 mg∙L^-1 6-BA. Proliferation of adventitious buds was maximized on MS (sugar-free) medium with 30 g∙L^-1 trehalose, 0.5 mg∙L^-1 2,4-D, and 1 mg∙L^-1 6-BA, yielding a proliferation coefficient of 3.29±0.22. Rooting of regenerated shoots was successfully achieved (84.44±6.93)% on 1/2MS medium containing 0.1 mg∙L^-1 NAA, followed by acclimatization with a survival rate exceeding 85%, validating the efficacy of the established regeneration protocol.
CONCLUSION: This study established a petiole-based high-efficiency regeneration system for V. × wittrockiana through genotype screening, media optimization, and repeated induction of high-regeneration genotypes. The protocol significantly improved adventitious bud differentiation rates (67.33%), addressing long-standing challenges in regeneration of this species. The system provides a robust technical foundation for genetic transformation, gene function studies, and large-scale propagation, thereby facilitating the commercial development and biotechnological advancement of this economically valuable species.

Observation of somatic embryo developmental stages during pansy regeneration. (A) Spherical embryo; (B) Heart-shaped embryo; (C) Torpedo-shaped embryo; (D) Cotyledon embryo; (E) Mature adventitious bud. Bar=1 cm

INTRODUCTION: Plant tissue culture technology is characterized by growth that is not restricted by seasons, high efficiency in plant propagation, and high survival rates. It can effectively ensure the quality and quantity of new and superior varieties of Xanthoceras sorbifolium, and is beneficial for the conservation and rapid dissemination of germplasm resources, thus promoting the development of the Xanthoceras industry. Therefore, it is now urgent to solve the browning problem of explants during the tissue culture process of Xanthoceras, in order to lay the foundation for establishing a stable and efficient regeneration system for this species.
RATIONALE: Currently, the growth cycle of somatic embryogenesis culture in X. sorbifolium is relatively long, and the acquisition of embryogenic callus tissue is quite challenging, resulting in poor reproducibility of the regeneration system established through somatic embryogenesis. Some studies have directly induced adventitious buds via organogenesis in X. sorbifolium and found that when cotyledons and stem segments are used as explants to induce adventitious buds, browning of the explants is common, leading to a low proliferation rate of adventitious buds and affecting the growth of the explants. Therefore, this study focuses on analyzing the difficulties in inducing adventitious buds during the tissue culture process of X. sorbifolium, explores the most suitable growth conditions for inducing adventitious buds, and discusses the impact of factors such as the type of cytokinin, temperature, light intensity, and the tenderness of the explants on the browning of X. sorbifolium tissue culture, in order to provide a basis for establishing an efficient and stable regeneration system for X. sorbifolium.
RESULTS: The browning issue severely affects the growth condition of X. sorbifolium explants and the efficiency of adventitious bud induction. After identifying the optimal disinfection method and the best medium for adventitious bud induction, we investigated the factors affecting the browning of X. sorbifolium cotyledons one by one. We found that the highest induction rate of adventitious buds was achieved when 2.5 mg∙L^-1 6-BA was added to the medium, and thus we selected it as the suitable cytokinin for inducing adventitious buds. The cotyledons of X. sorbifolium were cultured under the best conditions of a light intensity of 19.5 µmol∙m^-2∙s^-1 and a temperature of 26°C. Although culturing in the dark can inhibit browning, it cannot induce adventitious buds. The tenderness of the explants has an important impact on browning; the more tender the explants are, the lower the degree of browning. When the cotyledons of X. sorbifolium harvested from July 1^st to July 8^th were used for tissue culture, almost no browning occurred. At this time, the fruit coat is not cracked, the cotyledons are plump and firm, the seed coat is white, and it is easy to remove. These cotyledons are the best experimental materials for the tissue culture of X. sorbifolium.
CONCLUSION: Using the cotyledons of X. sorbifolium as the experimental material, the optimal medium for inducing adventitious buds and the factors influencing explant browning were investigated. The results showed that the best disinfection method for cotyledons was to treat them with 75% ethanol for 30 seconds, followed by 0.1% effective chlorine for 10 minutes, resulting in a contamination rate of 29.33% and a mortality rate of 12%. The optimal medium formulation for inducing adventitious buds was MS+2.5 mg∙L^-1 6-BA+1.0 mg∙L^-1 NAA+30 g∙L^-1 sucrose+6.8 g∙L^-1 agar+0.1 g∙L^-1 myo-inositol, with an induction rate of 72.22%. Among different types of cytokinins, the addition of 6-BA to the medium resulted in the lowest explant mortality rate (12.50%) and the highest induction rate (73.61%). The optimal culture conditions were 19.5 µmol∙m^-2∙s^-1 light intensity at 26°C, with an induction rate of 72.22%. The cotyledons from VI stage seeds collected between July 1^st and July 8^th were plump and firm, with white seed coats that were easy to remove, making them the best material for inhibiting browning in Xanthoceras tissue culture, with the highest adventitious bud induction rate (97.22%).

Adventitious bud induction (A) and browning inhibition (B) of Xanthoceras sorbifolium. When establishing a regeneration system for X. sorbifolium through tissue culture methods, severe browning poses a significant challenge. Therefore, through the process of inducing adventitious buds, explant materials that can alleviate the browning of cotyledon tissue culture have been identified. (A) Bar=5 mm; (B) Bar=2 cm

INTRODUCTION: In agricultural production, the utilization of heterosis has brought significant benefits to society and economic development by markedly increasing crop yield, stress resistance, and quality. Foxtail millet (Setaria italica var. germanica), as an important coarse grain crop in the arid and semi-arid regions of northern China, holds a significant position in dry land ecological agriculture. However, the slow increase in the yield of foxtail millet has limited the further realization of its production potential. Utilizing heterosis has thus become one of the effective ways to increase the yield of foxtail millet. Nevertheless, research on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of its heterosis is still relatively weak, and the mechanism remains unclear. Therefore, to understand the physiological mechanisms of heterosis in foxtail millet is of great importance for improving the yield of hybrid varieties.
RATIONALE: The Changzagu series of foxtail millet hybrids (Changzagu466, Changzagu2922, and Changzagu333) exhibit significant heterosis in yield. In order to elucidate its mechanism, we systematically analyzed the yield advantages of these hybrids and their influencing factors by measuring yield-related traits and key physiological indicators of the hybrids and their parental lines.
RESULTS: Throughout the entire growth period, the chlorophyll content of the three hybrid varieties was higher than that of their parents. Among them, Changzagu466 exhibited the highest chlorophyll content at the jointing stage, reaching 13.86 mg∙g^-1 FW. During the seedling and jointing stages, the root activity of the three hybrids was significantly higher than that of their parents. Specifically, Changzagu466 showed the highest root activity at the seedling stage, measuring 1.76 mg∙g^-1∙h^-1, which was 7.8 times and 5.5 times higher than its female and male parents, respectively. The root activity values of Changzagu2922 at the seedling stage were 0.38 and 0.66 mg∙g^-1∙h^-1 higher than its female and male parents, respectively. Meanwhile, Changzagu333 displayed pronounced advantages at the jointing stage, with root activity values 0.31 and 0.62 mg∙g^-1∙h^-1 higher than its female and male parents, respectively. In terms of yield-related traits, compared to their parents, the hybrids showed significant improvements in both grain filling rate and spikelet number. Changzagu466 reached its maximum grain filling rate of 1.58 g∙d^-1 per panicle at 19 days after flowering. Both Changzagu466 and Changzagu333 had significantly higher spikelet numbers than their parents, while Changzagu2922 also showed a significant increase in spikelet numbers. In addition, the hybrid varieties also demonstrate certain advantages in root nitrogen accumulation and nitrogen translocation efficiency. Among them, Changzagu2922 exhibits the strongest root nitrogen accumulation advantage and the highest nitrogen translocation efficiency (nearly 56%), both are significantly higher than that of its male parent line M22.
CONCLUSION: The Changzagu series of foxtail millet hybrids effectively enhances photosynthetic capacity, nutrient absorption and utilization efficiency by significantly increasing chlorophyll content, root activity during the early growth stages, and root nitrogen accumulation. Meanwhile, the significant increase in grain filling rate and spikelet number of the hybrids further enhances both grain weight and grain number per panicle, ultimately achieving high yield.

Foxtail millet and parental trait comparison chart

INTRODUCTION: Marigold (Tagetes erecta), an important ornamental and medicinal plant, has a unique capitulum characteristic of the Asteraceae family with distinct ray and disc florets. However, the lack of efficient genetic transformation system has limited the research on the mechanism of floral organ development of marigold. Floral transient transformation system offers a rapid approach to study the function of genes expressed specifically in floral organs. This study aimed to establish an efficient transient transformation system for marigold corollas and to analyze the promoter activity of TeCYC2c, which highly expressed in corollas, thereby laying the technical foundation for the rapid verification of floral gene function.
RATIONALE: A fusion expression vector, incorporating the CaMV35S promoter and the GUS reporter gene, was constructed to facilitate the transient transformation in marigold corollas. The study delved into the effects of bacterial strain type (GV3101, LBA4404, EHA105), bacterial suspension concentration (OD₆₀₀ values 0.5-2.0), infection duration (10- 40 min), and co-culture time (1-4 d) on the transient transformation efficiency of the GUS gene. Based on this transient transformation system for the marigold corollas, the promoter activity of the TeCYC2c gene was investigated. A 1 735 bp upstream sequence of the TeCYC2c gene was cloned and four promoter deletion expression vectors, with the GUS gene as the reporter gene, were constructed based on the distribution and quantity of elements predicted by PlantCARE. Subsequently, these vectors were employed for transient transformation of marigold corollas to facilitate an in-depth analysis of promoter activity.
RESULTS: The transient transformation efficiency in marigold corollas demonstrated that the GV3101 strain achieved the highest infection efficiency; the bacterial suspension concentration, quantified at an OD₆₀₀ value of 1.0, yielded the most robust transformation efficiency; the infection time was observed to exert no substantial influence on transient transformation efficacy; moreover, a co-culture time of 24 hours was identified as the optimal condition for the process. The results of GUS staining and GUS activity assay revealed that the core region of the promoter was located at -650 to -1 bp. It was speculated that the light-responsive elements within this region positively up-regulated the expression of downstream genes, while the hormone-responsive and stress-responsive elements unique to pTeCYC2c (-1 735) and pTeCYC2c (-1 406) might have an inhibitory effect on promoter-driven downstream gene expression.
CONCLUSION: This study established an efficient transient transformation system for marigold corollas, optimized through strain selection and parameter tuning. The identification of the TeCYC2c promoter core region (-650 to -1 bp) and its regulatory elements provides critical insights into the regulatory mechanism of the TeCYC2c gene. The transient transformation system and promoter analysis method lay a technical foundation for accelerating functional studies of floral development genes in marigold, with potential applications in the genetic improvement of ornamental plants.

GUS staining of marigold (Tagetes erecta) corollas under different transient transformation conditions. (A) GUS staining of marigold corollas infected by three different bacterial strains; (B) GUS staining under four different concentrations (OD₆₀₀) of bacterial suspension; (C) GUS staining under four different infection duration; (D) GUS staining under four different co-culture time. (A)-(D) Bars=1 cm

INTRODUCTION: Parrotia subaequalis, is a critically endangered wild plant species listed in the National Key Protected Wild Plants List of China and classified as Critically Endangered (CR) by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). As a relic species from the Tertiary period, it holds significant scientific value for studying the early origin and differentiation of the Hamamelidaceae family in China. Despite its ecological and ornamental importance, P. subaequalis faces numerous threats to its survival, including low natural survival rates due to limited light adaptation, difficulties in pollination and seed set, and challenges in vegetative propagation methods such as cutting and seed sowing. Tissue culture technology offers a promising approach to rapidly propagate this endangered species, overcoming the limitations of traditional propagation methods. 

 RATIONALE: This study aimed to establish an efficient tissue culture and rapid propagation system for P. subaequalis by investigating the effects of different disinfection methods, basic media, and combinations of plant growth regulators (PGRs) on lateral bud germination, proliferation, and adventitious root formation. By optimizing these factors, we sought to increase the survival rate and proliferation coefficient of P. subaequalis in vitro, thereby providing a reliable source of plant material for conservation and production purposes. 

RESULTS: Disinfection effects: The optimal disinfection method involved treating the shoot segments with 75% ethanol for 30 seconds followed by 0.52% NaClO for 5 minutes, resulting in an 83.33% survival rate. Lateral Bud Germination: The WPM basic medium showed the highest germination rate (72%) among the tested media (MS, 1/2MS, WPM). The addition of 1.0 mg∙L–1 KT significantly increased the germination rate to 91%, but without inducing multiple shoots. The combination of 1.5 mg∙L–1 6-BA and 0.003 mg∙L–1 TDZ yielded the best proliferation results, with a proliferation coefficient of 4.17. Adventitious root formation: Inducing adventitious roots in P. subaequalis was challenging, with high concentrations of auxins causing browning and death of shoots. The addition of 0.2 mg∙L–1 NAA to 1/2MS medium resulted in a 60% rooting rate. Acclimatization and transplantation: Rooted plantlets were successfully acclimatized and transplanted into a mixed substrate of peat moss and perlite (3:1, v/v) with a survival rate exceeding 90% after 30 days. 

 CONCLUSION: This study successfully established a tissue culture and rapid propagation system for P. subaequalis, significantly improving its survival rate and proliferation coefficient. The optimized protocols, including the use of WPM medium for lateral bud germination, a combination of 1.5 mg∙L–1 6-BA and 0.003 mg∙L–1 TDZ for proliferation, and 0.2 mg∙L–1 NAA for root induction, provide a reliable method for the large-scale propagation of this endangered species. This system not only contributes to the conservation of P. subaequalis but also facilitates its utilization in landscaping and timber production. Future research could focus on exploring the regeneration capacity of different color morphs and geographical populations of P. subaequalis to further enhance its conservation and sustainable use.

INTRODUCTION: Plant roots respond to various abiotic stresses, including drought stress, heavy metal stress, salt stress, and deficiencies in essential nutrients, during their growth and development. Among these factors, soil structure, especially soil compaction, significantly affects root growth and morphology, ultimately influencing crop yield.

RATIONALE: The Golgi apparatus plays a role in root growth and responds to abiotic stress through vesicle secretion. However, the mechanisms by which the Golgi apparatus contributes to the response of the root system to soil compaction remain unclear. Previous studies have demonstrated that AtFTCD-L in Arabidopsis is located on the trans-Golgi network (TGN) opposite the Golgi apparatus, and plays a role in vesicle sorting and/or secretion regulation of mucin components in the peripheral cells of the root cap.

RESULTS: Compared with those of the wild type, the root tips and root tip cells of the ftcd mutant are shorter in the longitudinal direction, but wider in the transverse direction, indicating abnormal cell morphology. Analysis of fluorescent signals from PIN-GFP plants revealed that PIN7 was either not expressed or expressed at very low levels in mutants. This study provides theoretical insights into the adaptive mechanisms of plant roots in response to abiotic stress induced by soil compaction.

CONCLUSION: In summary, AtFTCD-L responds to soil compaction in the roots of Arabidopsis by regulating the distribution or expression of PIN7.

Phenotypic differences in the effects of soil compaction on AtFTCD-L (WT)-, and mutant (ftcd)-mediated PIN7 regulation of root cell growth. The growth phenotypes of the root tips of the Arabidopsis lines on the 7^th day.

INTRODUCTION: The wild populations of Microsorum punctatum face endangerment due to habitat degradation and low spore reproductive efficiency. Fern life cycles involve alternating gametophyte and sporophyte generations, where gametophyte development and sporophyte transition represent critical bottlenecks in in vitro propagation, heavily influenced by environmental factors and culture conditions. Although asexual propagation techniques such as green globular bodies (GGBs) have been successfully applied in some fern species, low sporophyte induction efficiency and proliferation challenges persist, hindering large-scale production. This study employed M. punctatum spores to systematically investigate sterile germination mechanisms, gametophyte proliferation, and sporophyte regeneration. A dual-pathway rapid propagation system was established, integrating high-efficiency prothallus proliferation with GGBs induction, aiming to provide both theoretical insights and practical solutions for conserving endangered fern resources and advancing industrial-scale cultivation.
RATIONALE: The unique alternation of generations life cycle in ferns, characterized by independent gametophyte survival, provides a theoretical framework for in vitro propagation. Studies have demonstrated that gametophyte homogenization culture and GGBs induction can overcome sporophyte regeneration barriers, while medium composition and phytohormone ratios critically regulate developmental phase transitions. To address the challenges of low spore propagation efficiency and habitat sensitivity in M. punctatum, this study leverages its gametophyte proliferation potential and rhizome meristematic activity in sporophytes. By optimizing aseptic systems and induction conditions, as well as mimicking the natural fertilization microenvironment, a dual-path regeneration system integrating prothallus proliferation and GGB-based propagation was established, laying a theoretical foundation for efficient conservation of endangered ferns.
RESULTS: Spore germination was optimally achieved in 1/2MS medium. Prothalli exhibited vigorous proliferation in MS medium supplemented with 0.3 mg·L^-1 6-BA and 1.5 mg·L^-1 NAA, reaching a proliferation coefficient of 9.6 after 60 days of culture. Fragmented prothalli transferred to 1/4MS medium with sterile water supplementation achieved a young sporophyte induction coefficient of 10.0 following 90 day cultivation. GGBs were successfully induced from young sporophytes in 1/2MS medium containing 1.5 mg·L^-1 6-BA and 0.1 mg·L^-1 NAA, showing 93.3% induction efficiency and a remarkable proliferation coefficient of 32.0. The GGB differentiation into plantlets was most efficient in 1/2MS medium, yielding a conversion rate of 92%. Acclimatized plantlets demonstrated over 90% survival rate post-transplantation.
CONCLUSION: This study successfully established an efficient in vitro rapid propagation system for M. punctatum spores. Optimization of sterilization duration and culture medium types significantly enhanced spore germination rates. A prothallus culture protocol with a high proliferation coefficient was developed, overcoming bottlenecks in gametophyte mass propagation. Liquid immersion-assisted fertilization technology enabled efficient induction of young sporophytes, while the GGBs induction system markedly shortened the regeneration cycle. For the first time, a dual-pathway rapid propagation strategy—“prothallus proliferation-sporophyte induction” combined with “GGBs cyclic regeneration” was proposed. The study demonstrated that the meristematic properties of M. punctatum GGBs are distinct from callus tissue, providing a robust technical framework for the conservation of endangered ferns and industrial-scale seedling production.

Formation of antheridia, archegonia, and sporophyte production in Microsorum punctatum

INTRODUCTION Salicylic acid (SA) plays an important role in the plant immune system. The quantitative analysis of SA in plants is fundamental to studying SA metabolism and its biological functions. Although high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC/MS) are widely used for SA determination, their low throughput limits their suitability for large-scale analysis. However, the SA biosynthetic pathway in rice is not well understood, highlighting the need for efficient methods to screen SA-related mutants and elucidate SA metabolic pathways.

RATIONALECurrent methods for measuring endogenous SA levels, such as HPLC and LC/MS, involve labor-intensive sample preparation, making them unsuitable for high-throughput analysis. While a lux gene-based SA biosensor has been successfully used in tobacco and Arabidopsis, a reliable and efficient method for SA detection in rice remains unavailable. To address this problem, we optimized sample processing and operational workflows to enable high- throughput SA quantification in rice plants.

RESULTS We developed a streamlined, high-throughput method for SA quantification in rice, eliminating time-consuming steps such as sample weighing, tissue grinding, and centrifugation. This approach significantly simplifies the process while maintaining efficiency and accuracy. We validated the method’s feasibility using published rice SA metabolic mutants. We then applied it to screen a Cobalt-60 induced rice mutant library, identifying mutants with altered SA metabolism. Endogenous SA levels in these mutants were confirmed using HPLC. The results demonstrate the method’s effectiveness in screening SA-related metabolic mutants, providing a valuable tool for studying SA metabolism and its roles in rice and other crops. The method was validated using known SA genetic materials. SA content-altered mutants were successfully isolated for further research.

CONCLUSION This study establishes a rapid and cost-effective method for measuring SA content in rice tissues using the SA biosensor Acinetobacter sp. ADPWH_lux. Given the pivotal role of SA in plant defense, our method adopts streamlined sampling process, requiring only leaf clipping and boiling in LB medium, and dramatically reduces the time and effort associated with tissue collection and processing. This high-throughput approach is well-suited for large-scale screening of greenhouse-grown or hydroponic plants, providing a powerful platform for advancing research on SA metabolism and its biological functions in crops.

Modified manipulating process for high-throughput determination of salicylic acid (SA) content using SA biosensor Acinetobacter sp. ADPWH_lux strain in rice

Somatic embryogenesis in plants is a classic example of cell fate reprogramming, in which somatic cells reverse their developmental trajectory to regain totipotency, thereby serving as a valuable tool in plant biotechnology for the propagation of endangered species and the production of transgenic crops with improved traits. However, the precise cellular origins and the molecular mechanisms driving somatic cell reprogramming remain incompletely understood. A recent study revealed that the LEC2-SPCH module can synergistically activate local auxin biosynthesis, guiding stomatal-lineage precursor cells in the cotyledon epidermis to undergo cell fate transition and develop into somatic embryos. This study not only captured the entire process of a single plant somatic cell developing into a somatic embryo for the first time but also provided critical evidence for deciphering somatic reprogramming. Capitalizing on these findings, this review summarizes the regulatory mechanisms underlying cell fate reprogramming during somatic embryogenesis, with a particular focus on the synergistic interplay between auxin signaling and epigenetic reprogramming. We further discuss the potential of leveraging core reprogramming factors to enhance crop regeneration systems and outline promising future research directions.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) play an important role in the regulation of seed dormancy release and germination. Low levels of ROS can promote seed germination, while excessively high levels of ROS can reduce seed vigor and germination rate. Pre-harvest sprouting (PHS) is an important agronomic trait that can cause severe decrease of crop yield and grain quality. Pre-harvest sprouting and seed dormancy are two manifestations of the same trait. Therefore, studying the dual role of ROS in seed dormancy and germination can reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying pre-harvest sprouting. For this purpose, this paper summarized the subcellular locations and metabolic pathways of ROS production during seed germination, focusing on the interaction of ROS with biomacromolecules, plant hormones and other small molecules and the signaling pathways of ROS functionalization. This review provides a theoretical basis for understanding the mechanisms of ROS in the process of crop pre-harvest sprouting.